Role of the Military in Post-colonial Politics

Role of the Military in Post-colonial Politics How do you explain the prominent role of the military in political life in the post-colonial Middle East? The role of the military in the political spectrum in the Middle East is becoming more significant by the day. Over the last few years, several Middle Eastern countries have experienced governmental changes during which the military played a part, most notably is Egypt. Yet this is not a modern trend; throughout the past century, the military has taken a high position in the society of various Middle Eastern countries, particularly since the fall of colonisation. (Cronin, 2013) Through this essay one will attempt to examine the reasons behind the power that the military has been given by investigating these countries throughout their colonisation as well as the immediate time following the fall of colonisation. It will also be important to determine the role that this has in modern day Middle Eastern politics by scrutinising how the military and politicians interact with each other. Through these topics, one will be able to explain why the military plays such a prominent role in the post-colonial Middle East. When examining the Middle East, it is imperative that we study the role of democracy in states in which the military plays a prominent part. The majority of Middle Eastern countries are Islamic. (Khadduri, 1953) The role Islam plays in how society operates in these countries is impossible to ignore and it in turns influences the regions politics. Everything in an Islamic democracy comes under the influence and jurisdiction of God. (Khadduri, 1953) This is far from democratic yet the people who live in these regions accept the system because of their moral convictions. By accepting and living with the system they are living with God and accepting his rules as laid out through the Islamic penal codes. The Middle East experienced many problems in the early 20th century following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the colonisation of many states in the region by European powers. Following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, countries in the region carried over some characteristics to their new successor states, particularly praetorianism and patrimonialism. (Cronin, 2013) The colonising states were therefore forced to introduce reforms to stem the excessive power from previous regimes. These reforms were introduced to correct the abuses, forcing the army to establish a European model. (Cronin, 2013) The Army officials were now absorbed into European ideals of nationalism, constitutionalism and socialism, allowing them to become the most radicalised group in society. (Khadduri, 1953) The military officers for the most part operate upon their own morals, and if the politicians fail, the military will overthrow them; effectively giving all the power to the military. (Khadduri, 1953 ) Economically, countries like Egypt suffered under colonisation and this led to an increase in Military power in the region. The thriving Egyptian textile industry was abandoned and the raw materials were shipped to the United Kingdom where they were fashioned into finished products and then exported back to the Middle Eastern Market for resale. (Khadduri, 1953) This created a need for employment, which led to increased members of the lower classes joining the military (removing people from the prospect of productive labour). Politically, colonisation played a fundamental part in the make-up of the modern day Middle East. The creation of Jordan as an independent state in 1946 stemmed from the Palestinian War. (Sela, 1992) The British were forced into the creation of state in which the boundaries were drawn on a map in London. This created a state that had opposing social groups and ideologies and no majority assembly creating political tension. (Sela, 1992) Similar actions occurred throughout the Middle East, as European powers attempted to redraw state lines and move different social and religious groups into new countries in an attempt to cut out future rebellions. (Sela, 1992) These newly founded societies relied heavily on the role of the military in an effort to maintain the peace as different political leaders came and went. Following the collapse of the British Empire and the independence gained by former French colonies, the Middle East became a deeply unstable region. (Khadduri, 1953) As many countries throughout the world were experimenting and introducing new political ideas and platforms, the Middle East was being restricted by its religious ideology. (Khadduri, 1953) The failure to gain a platform that appealed to the masses during this time as well as the vulnerability and highly conservative nature of the Middle Eastern regimes made the army the main power in these Islamic states. (Khadduri, 1953)This power derived from a failure on the part of the politicians, who never addressed the problems that derived from a society whom did not accept a democracy. (Cronin, 2013) The control of government by the military was therefore indicative both of serious defeats in the democratic processes in the Middle East and the eagerness with which the Middle Eastern political leaders sought to pursue a high pol itical life. Our assessment of the role the military has in Middle East politics is largely formed around the history of the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s in the region. (Rubin, 2001) Throughout these decades military coups were frequent in the Arab world. The armed forces during this time were highly politicised, and the publically elected rulers generally failed to control them. Also during this period, the military was seen as the most effective national institutions and in some cases, the only effective one. (Rubin, 2001) Military officers during this period believed that politics was too important to be just left to the politicians, whom they alleged were incompetent and corrupt individuals. (Rubin, 1987) The 1948 Palestinian defeat along with the failure to gain Arab unity was perceived by military officers as subservience to Western states. (Sela, 1992) The failure by the politicians to modernise and develop the economies in the region was also among the criticisms that motivated officers to seek power. The military coups could also be interpreted due to the various ethnic, religious, social-class, and regional groups that were represented in the military at the time, those who were in fact, largely excused from the political and social elites. (Rubin, 1987) These coups were therefore social revolutions which occurred with the assistance of the military. The current era of Middle Eastern politics was shaped by these military regimes and the elected rulers who learned how to stem the threat. These officials who survived the age of military coups were determined to prevent military officers from staging any fresh coups and had substantial success in preventing their armies from intervening in politics. (Rubin, 2001)The rulers also were able to build a loyal military that could successfully maintain internal order. (De Atkine, 2000) However the price of this loyalty damaged their ability to function as actual armed forces during wars, as their much of their training was gained whilst stemming revolts. (De Atkine, 2000) The failure to gain a political platform that was accepted by the majority of society forced Middle Eastern countries to resort to the conservative authority seen in the region before colonisation. This conventional power derives from a monarch through the clergy and the army; the two most influential fields in a modern Middle Eastern state. (Rubin, 1987) Following the inception of independence in the region, the government sought to secure the future of the state through these two fields. Islam would become the focal point of law in the region while a large army would consolidate independence. (Khadduri, 1953) The army became synonymous with providing its members with a good education; these educated officials became the most trusted members of society and were publically backed to work within the public service. (Khadduri, 1953) Subsequently it was assumed that the military would be able to enforce a united society amongst the various communities within the Middle Eastern States. (Kleber Naumann, 2013) The military would become the catalyst in modernising the society. The military officers inadvertently became expected to set up; state-controlled economies, introduce a just distribution of wealth, and encourage a new national responsibility based on egalitarianism and political participation. (Kleber Naumann, 2013) However, it should be noted that the military’s loyalty lies with the regime rather than the consensus of the general population, the democratic system in place, or the state as a concept. There are exceptions however such as Turkey (where the armies are the guardians of the republic) and of course Israel. The program of most Arab governments over the last few decades has been to cut this power that the military has. In some Middle Eastern countries however, the military is at the centre of the social order and the governmental ideology; for example, the Iranian Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps main aim is to support radical Islamic rule and this is mainly due to Islamic tradition. (Bazargan, 1997) In the 1950s, the radical military officers who sought to gain power always had their views tied to secularist beliefs. Moreover, the armed forces had more influence from foreign ideas and personnel than any other institution in Middle Eastern society. (Bazargan, 1997) Perhaps the loyalty of the military is merely down to a pragmatic and patriotic attitude which discouraged traditional the Islamic devotion. Even Israel’s army was traditionally dominated by secularists. Judaism may now more than ever be becoming an important factor in the Israeli Army but they are still quite low in the higher ranking positions. (Cohen, 1997) Also the Turkish army is explicitly secular, believing it to be one of the Turkish republic’s most important values. (Ozcan, 2001) Israel and Turkey however are relatively unique, in that they ‘explicitly stress the military’s role in national integration: bringing people from different areas, backgrounds, and social levels together to forge them into a single nation.’ (Ozcan, 2001) These two countries have a very broad draft policy in their conscription and put a relatively large proportion of their citizens through some experience of military service. (Rubin, 2001) The armed forces can also play an important socio-economic role. They can absorb any excess labour, which might otherwise result in unemployment and therefore be politically disruptive; Egypt’s previous regime was a good example of this. As noted above, though, as economies develop the armed forces can be a drain on the workforce, removing people from potentially productive employment. (Kleber Naumann, 2013) The armed forces can also be used for development projects, and Egypt also furnishes a good example in this respect. (Rubin Kearney, 2001) The increased numbers has not improved the power the military has however. As governments in the Middle East have been deemed by Political Scientists to have successfully stemmed the power of the Military by forcing their political exclusion. (Rubin Kearney, 2001) Political scientists believe that the role of the armed forces in the region has been decreasing significantly in the last 30 years. (Rubin Kearney, 2001) This could be mainly due to the attempts by these countries to build and have access to weapons of mass destruction. At first glance, it would seem that the access to these weapons would only enhance the strength of the regions military. However, it should be noted that these governments control these weapons very closely and only allow certain military personal know about them. (Rubin Kearney, 2001) This would seem that the governments want to place more importance on these weapons than their own regular armed forces. In part, these countries attaining these weapons are attempts to deter the perceived deadlock between them and the military, and shifting the balance of power to their side. Clearly, these weapons of mass destruction add a new dimension to the doctrine and strategy of Middle East armed forces, as decisions can be directly enforced by those who give the order, the government. (Rubin Kearney, 2001) These weapons have already been used in the Iran-Iraq war–with both sides firing missiles at the others’ cities and using, especially in Iraq’s case, chemical weapons with great effectiveness in battlefield situations. (Bazargan, 1997) This has significantly lowered the power that the regular armed forces have, as the regular citizen may no longer see them as the guardians of the Arab state and instead shift the allegiance they had to these weapons. Israel has had nuclear capability for a long time however these weapons have had very little impact on its policy making o r military structure. It should be emphasized, that even the presence of weapons of mass destruction in the Middle Eastern region does not render the existing regular armies irrelevant. On the contrary, if such armaments break the existing deterrence deadlock they could make the armed forces a more important tool for power projection for the governments. (Rubin Kearney, 2001) This in turn will shift the power the government believed it has gained right back to the military. In recent years, the attempt to consolidate power by the governments in place has failed. The recent uprisings in the Middle East region have brought two major patterns to the attention of the public and Political scientists. Firstly, the politicization and mobilization of larger parts of the civilian population has called into question the belief that the Islamic/Arab societies are unable to engage in collective action as they are beset with political apathy. (Albrecht, 2012) A perspective on the uprisings in Egypt, Tunisia, Syria, Bahrain, Libya and Yemen with minor revolts in Jordan, Oman, and Morocco would have to make political scientists rethink that these societies are unable to mobilise. (Albrecht, 2012) Secondly, due to the increased importance put on military exclusion from Politics by the governments many Political Scientists came to believe that the armed forces had come to accept their role as protectors of the internal peace. (Albrecht, 2012) Yet this is not the case as it is evident that the military has played a part in the course of the recent uprisings. Therefore it is clear that the political engagement of the military in the region is at a much higher degree than first estimated, based on the research in the last thirty years. Throughout the last thirty years, attempts have been made to combat the power the military had in the Middle East by their respective governments. During the previous decades the rulers in place feared the possibility of a military coup at any time and in turn this led to any military officer believe they could rise up and gain power. Attempts have been made to deter the military from political interaction yet this seems to be a failed attempt as the armed forces play such a vital role in maintaining order in a very conservative region. It is hard to see this power ever fading either; as the people in the region place a high emphasis on the role of the military and will side with them over the democratic process. It is clear that colonisation played a large part in the public support for the military as throughout their colonisation and in the immediate period after the people regarded the armed forces as the keepers of peace and the guardians of independence. And with the Middle Eas t being as unstable as ever, it is difficult to see the heroic standing the military has in society fading any time soon. à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ · Bibliography Albrecht, H., 2012. Military Engagement in Mobilizing Societies in the Middle East. [Online] Available at: http://www.eui.eu/DepartmentsAndCentres/RobertSchumanCentre/Research/InternationalTransnationalRelations/MediterraneanProgramme/MRM/MRM2013/ws02.aspx [Accessed 22 MArch 2014]. Bazargan, D., 1997. Iran: Politics, The Military and Gulf Security. MERIA, 1(3). Cohen, S., 1997. Portrait of the New Israeli Soldier. MERIA, 1(4). Cronin, S., 2013. Armies and State Building in the Modern Middle East: Politics, Nationalism and Military Reform. Oxford: I.B.Tauris Co Ltd. De Atkine, N., 2000. Why Arabs Lose Wars. MERIA, 4(1). Khadduri, M., 1953. The Role of the Military in Middle East Politics. The American Political Science Review, 47(2), pp. 511-524. Kleber, V. Naumann, N., 2013. Power struggles define the Middle East in 2013. DW, 28 December. Ozcan, G., 2001. The Turkish Foreign Policymaking Process and the Influence of the Military. In: B. Rubin K. Kirisci, eds. Turkey in World Politics: An Emerging Multi-Regional Power. London: Boulder Co. Rubin, B., 1987. Modern Dictators: Third World Coupmakers, Strongmen, and Populist Tyrants. New York: s.n. Rubin, B., 2001. The Military in Contemporary Middle East Politics. [Online] Available at: http://www.gloria-center.org/2001/03/rubin-2001-03-04/ [Accessed 21 March 2014]. Rubin, B. Kearney, T., 2001. Armed Forces in the Middle East. London: s.n. Sela, A., 1992. Transjordan, Israel and the 1948 War: Myth, Historiography and Reality. Middle Eastern Studies, 28(4), pp. 623-688. 12449538Page 1

Civilization of Ancient Greece

Greece produced classics in almost all genres of creative expression: literature, philosophy, music, the visual arts, and architecture. These classics advanced the aesthetic principles of clarity simplicity, balance, regularity, and harmonious proportion. As a style, Classicism is characterized by these aesthetic principles and by the related ideals of reason, moderation, and dignity (Firer 29). Greek culture is a very original culture in their way of life. A good example is the Parthenon.It towers in height with its beautifully elegant and simple design. It served as a shrine to Athena, the goddess of wisdom and war. Many people visit it each year for its history and unique structure. It had a columned design, made marble and realistic lifelike sculptures the first of its kind. Greek architecture has a specific look and feel to it that has been repeated in inspiration of many artists. It has been used as a design for many current structures, including banks, and libraries. The Iliad and the Odyssey are very unique epics that are the first of their kind.During the long period of political and social turmoil that followed, storytellers kept alive the history of early Greece, the adventures of Mycenaean, and the tales of the Trojan War, passing them orally from generation to generation (32). It was not until at least the ninth century B. C. E. That these stories were transcribed; and it was yet another three hundred years before they reached their present form. They became â€Å"national† poems of ancient Greece, uniting Greek-speaking people by giving literary authority to their common heritage (33).They tell stories that the Greeks held close and wanted to last forever within their culture. These are even used for Inspiration today in writing and poetry. Both are also taught In high school In basic literature classes. They carry lessons that we use In today's culture; for example, the concepts that everyone makes mistakes (even heroes), to follow directi ons, loyalty, and to never give up or let go for the ones that you love. All of these life lessons are very Important In our culture today. Work Cited Hero, Gloria K. Landmarks In Humanities. D deed. New York. McGraw Hill, 2013. Print Civilization of Ancient Greece By pleasantries and wanted to last forever within their culture. These are even used for inspiration today in writing and poetry. Both are also taught in high school in basic literature classes.

Book review: 1776 by David McCullough Essay

Thesis statement   The year 1776 was the year of battle for the revolutionary war. Great Britain had abandoned slavery many years ago but the revolutionaries had not stopped up until 1862 when they decided to stop it. Book summary The book talks of the revolution in the good year 1776. It was a year that was well started with the barefoot boys and men who came to the farm and the streets to become an army of provincials. According McCullough (1), the old men and the little boys were playing the fife and drum. After chasing the red cots from Boston, later the rag tag revolutionaries of British subjects who had few guns were chased from New York. The book advocates of the ill clad fundamentals and traitors to the top people who fought the legal government that was composed of 13 colonies. On July that year the continental congress took a step forward to dissolve the relationship with Britain. It was considered to be a dangerous move of fighting the most powerful nation of the world.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   King George was not happy with this and spoke before the parliament to order the revolution to be stopped. The commanders chosen by the king had their own view on this revolution. Lord George German thought that the upheaval had crushed with a critical drive. Edmund Burke was speaking considerably for the pioneers of the revolution but used to term it as their colonies. After 236 years the early part was considered to be a myth and history and the revolution was already forgotten. McCullough (1) emphasizes that the CIA can fight revolutionaries; these are the people who flock behind the populists as Fidel’s and trespass out for Oriented province into Havana. The year 1776 had its Tories who would flee behind the British lines to spy against the Americans and withdraw through the islands of Nova Scotia and common wealth. The black slaves would join the Tories when necessary. Great Britain had abandoned slavery many years ago but the revoluti onaries had not stopped up until 1862 when they decided to stop it.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   David McCullough a great story and good record that is an action adventure of a history. He wrote about the myths and stories of the people who would write to the leaders of the nation. However it is believed that the story of David McCullough does not come true. The king, George Washington would always stay brave and straight always as this was a requirement for a leader. Everyone believed in him to lead them in the fights, encouraging and examination of the men in order to learn them. The king was referred as the Virginia gentleman who came after the introduction of the dollar. The English colony or the world power lies on the braveness of this king who introduced the most valuable money in the whole world.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   However there has been a decline in the nations economy. The revolutionary that took place put the constitution in danger. There was an introduction of a democratic government that was ruled by law and not kings. The formation of a government is the start of having a nation in a country. The king was a brave person and presented his character as symbol that he can solve the problems of the nation. He was elected at the continental congress though he was not sure of his eligibility. The king had a burden of defeat and failures in various areas, people were dead and others were continuing to die. Also he was burdened by the men who could not act on the attack that was heading towards the Delaware River to stop the battle of Brooklyn.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The beginning of august came with the rebel siege of Boston and Washington discovered that the available gunpowder was only 10, 000pounds. This was not enough to fight the experienced British army and hired Hessians who were well equipped with better weapons. Cowley & Beevor stressed that, the army had about nine rounds per man and this was not sufficient to beat the British army and hired Hessians. In December 1776 were the difficult moments for most of the men. Washington was tempted when his army became undisciplined and would go away after their period of service was over. He had difficult times of changing the army in the middle of the battle. The congress had given him a command to handle the army but not enough money. This is what made the army to go away very easily in the middle of the battle.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Fort Washington and his army were defeated in the disastrous Battle of Brooklyn and this led to the loss of New York City. In this battle the continental Army was the only successful withdrawal and this left their enemies surprised that they are defeated but it did not mean that they would win the battles. The army matched with fear towards Philadelphia where two men became frozen to death during the march. General Nathaniel Green suggested wisely of a trail of goods that were to be taken as long as the British navy and the nature of New York arrive at the port. Washington was seen to continue defending facts that could no longer be defended. He was brave and charismatic and would lead the colonies to nationhood but he was not always right.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Fort Washington surrender on the 16th of November and this was a severe blow to the colonists. It was a big blow to the colonists at the time, Two thousand of the colonists were taken to prison, fifty-nine killed, one hundred and forty six guns were lost to the British and Hessians within hours. However, the loss of fort Washington created a new achievement in that a new heroine known as Molly Corbin. She was the widow of John Corbin who came from Pennsylvania. She was a brave colonial woman who accompanied her husband into the battle and after his death she took his position. She continued loading and firing the cannon until she was shot nearly to have her arm removed. This is when her captors allowed her to go back to her home in Pennsylvania.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The story given by McCullough is clearly described with maps and clear descriptions of the forces placement and the landscape. The scene in the battles can be represented by movies of blood, spear and glory. In this book there is good explanation of why Washington crossed the Delaware. The withdrawal from New York was accomplished without losing the army and the war that outnumbered the British and their navy. In order to cross the Delaware, the General with his staff planned to pass above Trenton and New Jersey by three elements of his army. However only one element could succeed in crossing due to the blowing cold wind and snow. The other two elements of flanks would be prevented from crossing by the freezing river.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚      On 3rd of August 1776, the soldiers were ordered to prohibit blasphemy. The American values have changed definitely since the troops are now allowed to have an opportunity to attend public workshop. They are also permitted to rest after going through the great fatigue. In future, the General except at the shipyards or on special occasions excuses them from fatigue duty on Sundays. The General cannot be pleased with the foolish and wicked practice of profane cursing and swearing. The officers are expected not have the influence of these practices. Strengths and weakness of the book This book is seen to be an amazing book because it is not exactly a book but an experience. It was designed to instill a feeling of pride among the people who served them. The book does not cover many of the areas that readers expected from his book. Hence more details should have been given about the revolutionary war. To add on the book is not clear because many readers may find themselves not remembering anything about the revolutionary war at the end of the book. The book is seen to be attractive as well as convincing; this is because it is written in an educational approach that makes the reader feel present at the events that are happening. Conclusion   The book is a very detailed account of the American revolutionary war as told by chronicles of the real people who lived through it. The only thing it did not mention a whole lot was the pivotal role Vin diesel played when taking the guns from Ft. Greyskull or the path where George Washington jumped the Delaware River on his wacky big front wheel bike. Work Cited McCullough David, 1776, New York: Simon & Schuster, 2005:1-4 Cowley Robert & Beevor Anthony, What ifs? Of American history: Eminent historians Imagine what might have been. USA: Penguin group. 2004. Drake Samuel, the Campaign of Trenton, 1776-1777, Washington DC: Lee & Shepard, 2007:23-30 Dwyer William, the day is ours, November 1776-January 1777, an inside view of the Battles of Trenton and Princeton, New York: Viking press. 1983: 101-156 Wood Gordon. The creation of the American Republic, 1776-1787. New York city: UNC Press. 1998: 1-9

Colgate-Palmolive CSR Free Essay Example, 1000 words

The company’s enormous R&D program is formulated to provide effective, safe and superior products (Colgate, 2015). Product safety and quality The products ingredients are thoroughly evaluated using the latest technologies to promote safety and quality. The ingredients are assessed individually by Colgate scientists in order to prevent unforeseen uncertainties. The ingredients are analyzed in different real world situations like transportation, storage, manufacturing and at consumers homes. Product safety testing Colgate has a stringent rule in preventing animal testing among its products. It has maintained a 30 year initiative that encourages alternatives to scientific testing. The company has been awarded by PETA for promoting corporate activism in research alternatives (Colgate, 2015). Improvement of raw materials Colgate has partnered with supply chains to enhance its materials sustainability. Colgate is focusing on improving its carbon emissions, implementing green chemistry and adapting renewable raw materials. Packaging The organization has out-passed its goal of increasing recycling content in packaging by 20% which it implemented in 2010 instead of 2015. The company’s packaging firm continuously assesses the processes and materials that could improve environmental and human health impacts (Colgate, 2015). Access and affordability The company is committed at providing affordable products for every consumer. We will write a custom essay sample on Colgate-Palmolive CSR or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/pageorder now The company provides refill packs and small sized products that have value options (Colgate, 2015). The company tracks the purchasing power of lower income customers in the emerging markets so as to implement affordability of its products. Partnerships with customers Colgate engages with numerous retail stores, both small and large so as to sell the products world-wide. Colgate conducts merchandising techniques, innovative marketing communications, joint business initiatives and shopper insights to engage and build customer partnerships (Colgate, 2015). PLANET: Climate and energy The company tracks indirect and direct gas emissions for example scope 2 or indirect emissions are from Colgate sources. The company plans to invest 5% of its annual capital expenditure on planet related projects (Colgate, 2015). The company uses alternative energy like biomass, solar, green power, wind and fuel cells to promote the environment. Conservation of water The company has formulated a 2015 goal where it plans to reduce water consumption per unit of production by 40%.